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It is also well understood that the reliability of a repaired assembly is not as good as a properly soldered first-pass printed circuit assembly due to additional board handling and solder-joint degradation as a result of re-soldering The solder flux chemistry and how it is applied and heated may also impact product reliability These points reinforce the need to understand PCA processes thoroughly and to solder properly the first time There are fundamental rules that will become evident in discussions of metallurgies, fluxes, and processes If these rules are heeded, the results are optimal soldering yield and the best reliability However, the only way to know whether an assembly will endure its intended use and environment is to develop appropriate accelerated testing methods that can accurately gauge product field reliability..

It is incumbent on the PCA process engineer to understand the materials properties and phenomena that influence the soldering process and the reliability of the finished assembly. A basic understanding of mechanics, thermodynamics, metallurgy, and chemistry and how they apply to a finished solder joint is required for good PCA process engineering. The process engineer should influence product design for best manufacturability and reliability and also assemble boards with the highest reliability possible given the board design, materials variables (surface finishes, solder, solder flux, etc.), and components that comprise the bill-ofmaterials. Additionally, there are certain critical rules one could follow for incoming printed circuit board cleanliness, solder purity, etc. These are best described in standards documents, such as those published by the IPC. There are also abundant pitfalls in soldering. Too much gold in tin-lead solder will cause solder-joint embrittlement. Too high a process time or temperature can have the same effect on solder joints. Contamination of tin-bismuth solder joints with lead (Pb) can cause joint failure. The residues left by some fluxes can be corrosive. Electrochemical migration induced by flux corrosion products is a common mode of circuit failure that is difficult to pinpoint by electrical testing. Dendritic filaments can form between two board features of differing electrical potential. Because these microscopic dendrites have limited current-carrying capability, they may act as miniature fuse links that may break and re-fuse, making the root cause of electrical failure quite difficult to diagnose and locate. Thus, there are many variables associated with circuit board assembly, and the process engineer has to rely on science and engineering fundamentals in order to contribute to intelligent PCA design and defect-free assembly.

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The properties of an alloy are dependent on its constituent metals and the ratio of the number of atoms of one constituent to the atoms of the other Variations in these atomic ratios result in alloys of vastly different properties that are exploited to suit a particular application Melting points can be adjusted, as can hardness, tensile strength, shock resistance, etc In trying to achieve a suitable melting point, there are always trade-offs, and other material properties may degrade to the point that the alloy may not be suitable for its end-use application Such is the case in the search for lead-free alloy substitutes To date, no direct replacements approximate the properties of the well-understood standard of eutectic Sn-Pb (Sn63) solder In most cases, liquidus temperatures (the temperatures at which a material goes from solid to liquid) of the Pb-free solder alloys are higher than that of eutectic Sn-Pb.

When comparing among bearing systems, the first point that comes to mind is the difference between aerostatic and hydrostatic systems This will be first dealt with in this section, and the comparison will later be extended to all available bearing systems The theory of gas bearings is more complicated than that of liquid bearings because of the effects arising from the compressibility of fluids that lead to complicated relations between the pressure and the flow of compressible fluids [36] When comparing gas and liquid hydrostatic bearings, a few differences will be quite obvious The size proportions and materials of a typical gas bearing are generally all quite different from those of a typical liquid bearing for similar functions For gas bearings, a consideration of the instabilities must always be included in the design However, friction power is usually neglected for gas bearings, and the opposite is true for hydrostatic bearings The fundamental differences between oil and air are that oil can be assumed as being incompressible, and the viscosity of oil is between 100 and 1000 times greater than the viscosity of air This allows for higher supply pressures without excessive flow rates and pumping power A higher supply pressure simply means a greater load capacity and stiffness Hydrostatic bearings Fig 768: A grinding spindle assembly are superior in terms of their load capacity, whereas aerostatic bearings excel in terms of friction This can be proven by assuming equal pumping power, size, shape and clearance for hydrostatic and aerostatic bearings For simplicity, the compressibility of air is also ignored [3]

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